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Consumer Law for CLAT: A Comprehensive Study Module

Welcome to your essential guide for two crucial topics that frequently appear in the Legal Reasoning section: Consumer Protection Law and the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act. We know these areas can seem dense, but understanding them is key to acing those passage-based questions. This module will break down the core concepts, highlight game-changing amendments, show you how they play out in the real world with case examples, and give you solid strategies to tackle CLAT questions – all while pointing out common pitfalls to avoid!

Let’s dive in!

Part 1: Conquering the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 for CLAT

The Consumer Protection Act (CPA), 2019, is all about empowering you – the consumer. It replaced the older 1986 Act to deal with modern marketplace challenges like e-commerce and complex services. For CLAT, knowing the ins and outs of this Act is non-negotiable.

Section 1.1: Who Exactly is a “Consumer”? (And Who Isn’t!)

This is a foundational question and a CLAT favorite!

The Core Definition (CPA 2019, Sec 2(7)): A “consumer” is someone who:
- Buys goods for a consideration (paid, promised, partly paid/promised, or deferred payment). This includes any user of such goods with the buyer’s approval (think family members using a purchased TV). ¹
- Hires or avails of services for a consideration. This also includes any beneficiary of such services with the hirer’s approval. ¹
The “Commercial Purpose” Catch: Generally, if you buy goods or services for “resale” or for a “commercial purpose,” you’re NOT a consumer under the Act. ¹
- Crucial Exception for CLAT: The term “commercial purpose” does not include using goods bought and used exclusively for earning livelihood by self-employment. ¹ This is a hot area for questions!
  - Example 1: A tailor buys a sewing machine for her small, independent tailoring business. She IS a consumer. ⁴
  - Example 2: A large garment factory buys 50 sewing machines for mass production. This IS a commercial purpose, so the factory is likely NOT a consumer for those machines.
  - Example 3 (Online Era): The definition explicitly includes transactions done online, through teleshopping, direct selling, or multi-level marketing. So, yes, your online shopping sprees are covered! ¹
- Real-World Case Snippet:
  - In Lilavati Kirtilal Mehta Medical Trust v. Unique Shanti Developers (2019), houses purchased by a medical trust for its nurses were NOT held to be for a commercial purpose, and the trust was considered a consumer. This highlights how the “purpose” is key. ⁶
  - Similarly, in Crompton Greaves Limited and Others v. Daimler Chrysler India Private Limited (2016), if a director avails services for personal use, they are a consumer. ⁶
- CLAT Decoder (Strategy for Passages):
  - Look for the “consideration” element. If something is free, the person is generally not a consumer for that transaction. ³
  - Pinpoint the purpose of the purchase/service. Is it for personal use, self-employment livelihood, or a larger commercial venture/resale?
  - Passages might give you a scenario where a small business owner buys equipment. Apply the self-employment exception carefully.
- Common CLAT Blunder:
  - Mistake: Automatically excluding anyone who earns money using a product from being a consumer.
  - Correction: Remember the “exclusively for earning livelihood by self-employment” exception. A freelance photographer buying a camera for their work IS a consumer. ⁷

Section 1.2: Spotting Unfair & Restrictive Trade Practices (UTPs & RTPs)

Businesses can’t just do anything to make a sale. The CPA 2019 cracks down on practices that are unfair or restrict healthy competition.

Unfair Trade Practices (UTPs) (Sec 2(47)): These are deceptive or unfair methods used to promote sales or services. Think of them as trickery. ¹
- Examples Galore:
  - False Advertising: Claiming a product has qualities it doesn’t (e.g., “100% effective in 3 days!”). ¹
  - Misleading Pricing: Inflating the original price to show a fake “discount.” ¹
  - Bait and Switch: Advertising a great deal but then pushing a more expensive one. ⁹
  - Selling old/reconditioned goods as new. ¹
  - Non-compliance with Safety Standards: Selling toys that are choking hazards. ¹
  - “Unfair Contract”: This is a big one in CPA 2019! Contracts with terms that cause a significant imbalance in rights, like excessive security deposits or allowing one party to terminate without reason, are UTPs. ¹
- E-commerce & “Dark Patterns”: The government is cracking down on deceptive designs on websites/apps that trick you into doing things you didn’t intend, like:
  - False Urgency: “Only 2 left! Sale ends in 5 minutes!” (when it’s not true). ⁹
  - Basket Sneaking: Adding items to your cart without you explicitly doing so. ⁹
  - Subscription Traps: Making it super hard to cancel a subscription. ⁹
  - Drip Pricing: Showing a low price initially but adding fees at the very end. ⁹
  - The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) has issued advisories and notices to e-commerce platforms regarding these. ⁹
- Restrictive Trade Practices (RTPs) (Sec 2(41)): These practices manipulate prices or delivery conditions, or affect the supply of goods/services to impose unjustified costs or restrictions on consumers. They often limit competition. ¹
  - Examples:
    - Price Manipulation: A group of sellers colluding to fix high prices.
    - Tie-in Arrangements: Forcing you to buy product B (which you don’t want) to get product A (which you do want), if it imposes an unjustified cost. Example: A gas distributor forcing you to buy their specific (and perhaps overpriced) stove to get a gas connection.
    - Delaying delivery to jack up prices due to artificial scarcity. ¹¹
  - CLAT Decoder (Strategy for Passages):
    - For UTPs: Look for elements of dishonesty, false claims, hidden information, or one-sided contract terms.
    - For RTPs: Identify actions that mess with fair market conditions (price, supply) to the consumer’s detriment.
    - CLAT passages love scenarios with complex advertisements or contractual terms. Your job is to dissect them using these definitions.
  - Common CLAT Blunder:
    - Mistake: Confusing UTPs and RTPs.
    - Correction: UTPs are about the method (deception, unfairness). RTPs are about market restriction (price/supply manipulation).
    - Mistake: Thinking any “bad” business practice is a UTP/RTP.
    - Correction: It must fit the specific definitions in the Act. For RTPs, the cost or restriction must be “unjustified.”

Section 1.3: Getting Justice: Remedies & Filing Complaints

So, your rights were violated. What now?

Remedies Available: The Consumer Commissions can order: ¹
- Removal of defects from goods.
- Replacement of goods.
- Refund of the price.
- Compensation for loss or injury (including mental agony!).
- Discontinuation of UTP/RTP.
- Withdrawal of hazardous goods.
- Payment of costs.
The Three-Tier System: Consumer Dispute Redressal Commissions (CDRCs):
1. District Commission
2. State Commission
3. National Commission
Pecuniary Jurisdiction – SUPER IMPORTANT for CLAT! (CPA 2019):
This is based on the VALUE OF GOODS OR SERVICES PAID AS CONSIDERATION, not the amount of compensation claimed (which was the case under CPA 1986). 5
- District Commission: Consideration paid up to ₹1 crore. ⁵ (Note: Some sources might mention ₹50 lakh, but recent amendments and official documents point to ₹1 crore for District, but always go by what the CLAT passage states if it provides specific figures for the purpose of the question).
- State Commission: Consideration paid more than ₹1 crore and up to ₹10 crore. ⁵
- National Commission: Consideration paid exceeding ₹10 crore. ⁵
Territorial Jurisdiction (Where to File): Big change in CPA 2019! You can file where: ⁵
- The opposite party resides/works or has a branch.
- The cause of action (wholly or partly) arose.
- The complainant resides or personally works for gain. (This is a pro-consumer move!)
How to File a Complaint (The Basics):
- You can file it yourself; a lawyer isn’t always mandatory.
- Include names, addresses, facts, supporting documents (bills, warranties, photos, emails), and the relief you’re seeking. ¹³
- E-Daakhil / E-Jagriti Portal: Online filing is now a reality, making it much easier! ¹³
- Limitation Period: Two years from the date the cause of action arose. Delay might be excused if there’s a “sufficient cause.” ⁵
- Fees: Nominal fees, and often no fee for claims up to ₹5 lakh in District Commissions. ⁵
Mediation – The ADR Route:
CPA 2019 promotes mediation for faster settlements. If a settlement is reached, it’s binding, and no appeal lies against it. 5 However, serious cases like medical negligence causing grievous hurt/death might be excluded from mediation. 5
CLAT Decoder (Strategy for Passages):
- Always check the “consideration paid” to determine the correct Commission.
- Note the date of the problem to see if the 2-year limitation period applies.
- Look for facts indicating where the complainant resides/works for territorial jurisdiction questions.
Common CLAT Blunder:
- Mistake: Using old pecuniary limits (from CPA 1986) or basing jurisdiction on “compensation claimed.”
- Correction: CPA 2019 uses “consideration paid.”
- Mistake: Forgetting the complainant can file where they reside/work.
- Mistake: Not spotting the limitation period issue in a dated scenario.

Section 1.4: CPA 2019 – The Game Changers!

The 2019 Act brought some massive upgrades.

Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA): The New Sheriff in Town!
This is a regulatory body (unlike CDRCs, which are adjudicatory). The CCPA can: 3
- Investigate violations of consumer rights or UTPs suo motu (on its own).
- Order recall of unsafe goods/services.
- Order discontinuation of UTPs and misleading ads.
- Impose penalties on manufacturers, advertisers, AND endorsers for misleading ads.
Product Liability: Holding Them Accountable!
If a defective product or deficient service causes you harm, you can bring a “product liability” action. 2
- Who can be liable? Product manufacturer, product service provider, or product seller.
- Grounds: Manufacturing defect, design defect, deviation from specifications, not conforming to express warranty, failure to provide adequate instructions/warnings. ¹⁶
- This shifts the burden more towards “Seller Beware” from “Buyer Beware.” ¹⁶
E-commerce & Direct Selling Rules: Taming the Wild West!
The Act explicitly covers e-commerce. 3 The Consumer Protection (E-Commerce) Rules, 2020, impose obligations on platforms like: 15
- Appointing grievance redressal officers.
- Displaying seller details, country of origin, refund/return policies.
- Not engaging in UTPs or manipulating prices.
- The recent focus on “dark patterns” is part of this. ⁹
Misleading Advertisements & Endorser Liability: No More False Promises!
The CCPA can penalize not just the company but also the celebrity or influencer endorsing a product/service if the ad is misleading and they didn’t do their due diligence. 5
- Real-World Case Snippet: In Francis Vadakkam vs. Actor Anoop Menon & Ors., an actor endorsing a hair product that made unsubstantiated claims of hair growth was fined by a Consumer Forum. The court noted that if there were no ads, product prices might be lower. ¹⁹ This highlights the accountability of endorsers.
- Endorsers are expected to exercise due diligence to verify claims. ¹⁹
CLAT Decoder (Strategy for Passages):
- Distinguish CCPA’s regulatory/investigative role from CDRCs’ dispute resolution role.
- In product defect scenarios, identify who could be liable (manufacturer, seller, service provider) and on what grounds.
- Look for e-commerce scenarios where rules about transparency or dark patterns might be violated.
- If a celebrity is involved in an ad, consider their potential liability.
Common CLAT Blunder:
- Mistake: Confusing the CCPA’s powers with what a District/State/National Commission does.
- Correction: CCPA is for broader market actions and policy; CDRCs are for individual/group complaints and remedies.
- Mistake: Not understanding the specific grounds for product liability or who can be sued.
- Mistake: Forgetting that endorsers can now be held liable.

Part 2: Navigating the Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) Act for CLAT

The MTP Act deals with a sensitive and legally nuanced area. For CLAT, you need to understand its provisions, especially the recent amendments, and how they interact with fundamental rights and other laws.

Section 2.1: MTP Act – The Basics & Why It Matters

Original Intent (MTP Act, 1971): Decriminalized abortion in India under specific conditions when performed by a Registered Medical Practitioner (RMP). Key aims were to reduce illegal/unsafe abortions and provide a legal framework for termination on certain grounds. ²¹
Grounds under the 1971 Act (Context for Amendments):
- Up to 12 weeks (1 RMP’s opinion), 12-20 weeks (2 RMPs’ opinion) if:
  - Risk to woman’s life or grave injury to her physical/mental health.
  - Substantial risk of serious foetal handicap. ²¹
- Explanations for “grave injury to mental health” included pregnancy by rape or contraceptive failure (for married women). ²¹
Consent – Whose Voice Matters?
- Generally, the pregnant woman’s consent is paramount. ²¹
- If the woman is a minor (under 18) or mentally ill, guardian’s consent in writing is needed. ²¹
- Key Point: Spousal consent is NOT legally required for an adult, mentally sound woman.
  - Case Illustration: Dr Mangla Dogra and Others v Anil Kumar Malhotra and Others (2011) (Punjab & Haryana HC) affirmed that only the woman’s consent is needed for MTP, and a husband cannot compel her to continue a pregnancy. ²⁷ However, societal pressures sometimes create practical hurdles. ²⁷
- CLAT Decoder (Strategy for Passages):
  - Identify the woman’s age and mental state to determine consent requirements.
  - Passages might test the “no spousal consent needed” rule.
- Common CLAT Blunder:
  - Mistake: Assuming spousal consent is always needed.
  - Correction: Focus on the woman’s consent (and guardian’s, if applicable).

Section 2.2: The MTP (Amendment) Act, 2021 – What’s New and Why You MUST Know It!

This amendment significantly updated the MTP landscape. It aims to expand access to safe and legal abortion. ²²

Revised Gestation Limits & RMP Opinions (CRUCIAL!):
- Up to 20 weeks: Opinion of ONE (This simplifies the previous 12-20 week rule). ²²
- 20 to 24 weeks: Opinion of TWO RMPs, but only for “special categories of women.” ²²
  - “Special Categories” Include: ²⁸
    - Survivors of sexual assault or rape or incest.
    - Women whose marital status changes during pregnancy (widowhood/divorce).
    - Women with specified physical disabilities.
    - Mentally ill women.
    - Cases of foetal malformation with substantial risk of incompatibility with life or serious handicap.
    - Women in humanitarian settings/disasters.
  - Beyond 24 weeks: NO upper gestation limit if termination is necessitated by the diagnosis of substantial foetal abnormalities by a Medical Board. ²² (Termination to save the woman’s life immediately also has no upper limit and needs 1 RMP’s opinion). ²⁶
- Big Win for Unmarried Women: The ground of “failure of contraceptive method or device” now applies to “any woman or her partner” (previously “married woman or her husband”). This is a huge step for reproductive autonomy. ²²
- Medical Boards:
  - Constituted by State Govts/UTs for cases beyond 24 weeks due to substantial foetal abnormalities. ²⁸
  - Typically include a Gynaecologist, Paediatrician, Radiologist/Sonologist, etc. ³¹
  - Their role is to examine and opine on the necessity of termination due to these abnormalities. ³¹
- Strengthened Confidentiality (Sec 5A): Name and particulars of the woman whose pregnancy is terminated shall not be revealed (except as authorized by law). Violators can be punished. ²²
- Recent Case Context & Judicial Interpretation:
  - ***X v. Principal Secretary, Health and Family Welfare Department, Govt. of NCT of Delhi (2022)***: Landmark SC ruling! Allowed an unmarried woman to terminate a 20-24 week pregnancy from a consensual relationship due to contraceptive failure. The Court held that distinguishing between married and unmarried women for MTP access is discriminatory (violates Article 14) and that the right to reproductive autonomy, dignity, and privacy under Article 21 is paramount. ²²
  - Orissa High Court (Recent Development, 2023/2024): Concerned by delays in MTP cases (like a 13-year-old rape survivor with a pregnancy beyond 24 weeks), the HC directed the formulation of a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP). It noted healthcare providers’ hesitation due to fear of criminal liability, forcing patients to seek court approval even when not legally required, causing agony and delay. The court emphasized that decisions on MTP fall under bodily autonomy (Article 21). ³³
- CLAT Decoder (Strategy for Passages):
  - Memorize the new gestation limits and RMP requirements.
  - Know the “special categories” for 20-24 weeks.
  - Understand the Medical Board’s role for >24 weeks + foetal abnormality.
  - The X v. Principal Secretary case is prime material for passages on equality and autonomy.
- Common CLAT Blunder:
  - Mistake: Applying old gestation limits (e.g., the general 20-week cap).
  - Correction: The 2021 amendment is key.
  - Mistake: Not knowing which women fall into “special categories” for the 20-24 week window.
  - Mistake: Forgetting the Medical Board’s specific role or the expanded rights of unmarried women.

Section 2.3: MTP, Your Rights, and Tricky Legal Overlaps

This is where things get even more nuanced – perfect for CLAT passages!

Bodily Autonomy & Reproductive Choice (Article 21): The Supreme Court has repeatedly linked the right to make reproductive choices, including abortion, to the Right to Life and Personal Liberty under Article 21 (which includes dignity, privacy, and bodily integrity). ²²
- Landmark Case: ***Suchita Srivastava & Anr vs Chandigarh Administration (2009)***: SC held that a woman’s right to make reproductive choices is a dimension of her personal liberty under Article 21. ²⁶
Legal Tangles – Prime CLAT Fodder!
- MTP Act vs. POCSO Act (Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012):
  - The Conflict: MTP Act requires guardian’s consent for a minor’s abortion and emphasizes confidentiality. ²¹ POCSO criminalizes sexual activity with anyone under 18 (even if “consensual” by societal standards, it can be statutory rape) and has mandatory reporting requirements for anyone (including doctors) who knows/suspects child sexual abuse. ³⁵
  - The Dilemma for Doctors & Minors: If a minor seeks an abortion, the doctor might be legally forced to report it under POCSO, breaching MTP confidentiality and potentially leading to legal issues for the minor or her partner (even if another minor). This can deter adolescents from seeking safe, legal abortions. ³⁵
  - The Supreme Court in X v. Principal Secretary (2022) clarified that an RMP, on request of the minor and guardian, need not disclose the minor’s identity in the POCSO report related to MTP, and is exempt from disclosing identity in subsequent criminal proceedings. This aims to balance protection with access. ³²
- MTP Act vs. PCPNDT Act (Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994):
  - The Conflict: MTP Act allows abortion on various grounds. PCPNDT Act strictly prohibits sex-selective abortions and regulates diagnostic techniques to prevent their misuse.
  - The Chilling Effect: Fear of PCPNDT prosecution can make doctors overly cautious, sometimes denying legal MTPs even if the grounds are valid and unrelated to sex selection. Public misconception can also wrongly equate all abortions with illegal sex selection. ³⁵
- CLAT Decoder (Strategy for Passages):
  - Passages often create scenarios where a doctor faces a dilemma with a minor patient (MTP vs. POCSO). Understand the tension between confidentiality and mandatory reporting.
  - Be able to distinguish a legal MTP from an illegal sex-selective abortion.
  - Apply principles from Suchita Srivastava and X v. Principal Secretary regarding autonomy and non-discrimination.
- Common CLAT Blunder:
  - Mistake: Ignoring the woman’s autonomy, especially in light of SC judgments.
  - Mistake: Not understanding the complexities of a minor’s consent and the POCSO reporting conflict.
  - Mistake: Confusing the purpose of MTP Act (safe abortion access) with PCPNDT Act (preventing sex selection).

Part 3: Universal CLAT Legal Reasoning Strategies – Quick Hits!

While this module focuses on Consumer Law and MTP, these general strategies apply to ALL Legal Reasoning passages:

The Principle is KING: The legal principle given in the passage is your absolute truth for that question. Apply it strictly, even if it sounds weird or contradicts real law you know. ⁷
Dissect the Principle: Break it down into its core components or conditions. What must be proven? ³⁸
Map Facts to Principle: Carefully match the facts of the scenario to each part of the principle. Don’t add your own facts or assumptions! ³⁹
Eliminate Wrong Options: Look for options that contradict the principle, aren’t supported by the facts, or bring in outside knowledge. ³⁸
No Personal Opinions/Bias: Your feelings about fairness don’t matter. Logical application of the principle to the facts is all that counts. ⁷

General Common CLAT Blunders to Watch Out For: ³⁷

Misreading/Misinterpreting: Every word counts! Especially “and,” “or,” “not,” “unless.” ³⁹
Making Assumptions: Stick ONLY to the facts given. ⁴⁰
Ignoring Qualifiers: Words like “only if,” “except,” “provided that” are crucial.
Time Mismanagement: Practice under timed conditions. Don’t get stuck on one question for too long. ³⁹
Over-relying on one source or rote memorization: CLAT tests analytical skills, not just memory. ⁴³

Final Word for Your CLAT Prep:

Understanding the Consumer Protection Act, 2019, and the MTP Act (with its 2021 amendments) is vital. These laws are not just about rules; they reflect evolving societal values and rights. For CLAT, focus on:

The definitions (who is a consumer, what are UTPs/RTPs).
The key changes in CPA 2019 (CCPA, Product Liability, E-commerce rules, Endorser liability, new Pecuniary Jurisdiction).
The updated MTP provisions (gestation limits, special categories, Medical Boards, rights of unmarried women).
The landmark case laws that interpret these acts.
The tricky overlaps between MTP and other laws like POCSO.

The best way to master these topics is to practice with CLAT mock tests and previous years’ papers. ⁷ This will help you see how these principles are tested in passage-based questions.

Good luck with your preparation! You’ve got this!

Works cited

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Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Contemplative, Uncertain, Introspective. Akhmed is in a state of deep thought, his certainty about wanting to die is wavering, and a new, unfamiliar impulse is stirring.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Character Development	Introduces Akhmed and immediately shows him at a turning point, questioning his previous state of mind.
	Foreshadowing	His “sudden urge to speak up, to make his voice heard” foreshadows his later actions and transformation from a background figure.
	Setting as a Catalyst	The hospital environment, even before he enters, seems to prompt this initial shift in his thoughts.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Empathetic, Somber. Akhmed’s connection to the suffering around him is palpable, and the description of shared pain creates a somber mood.
Vocabulary	Kinship	A feeling of being connected or similar to other people. Stress: Highlights his immediate and profound identification with the suffering individuals.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Shared Humanity	Emphasizes the common experience of suffering as a connector between people.
	Internal Monologue	Reveals Akhmed’s own past or current feelings of suffering and isolation through his identification with others.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Hopeful (emerging), Admiring. While still acknowledging suffering, the focus shifts to the strength of the human spirit, evoking a sense of admiration and nascent hope.
Vocabulary	Resilience	The capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness. Stress: This is a central quality Akhmed observes and which profoundly impacts him.
Stress Words/Phrases	And yet	Signals a significant contrast to the suffering he just identified with, introducing a positive observation.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Theme of Resilience	Directly introduces one of the core themes that influences Akhmed.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Poignant, Touching, Observational. The descriptions are brief but emotionally charged, highlighting small acts of humanity in dire circumstances.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Vignettes	Presents small, illustrative scenes that contribute to the larger theme of resilience.
	Juxtaposition	The innocence of the girl and her request for a story juxtaposed with her severe injury (“bullet wound in her chest”) is particularly striking.
	Coping Mechanisms	Shows different ways individuals deal with suffering – storytelling, song, prayer.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Epiphanic, Hopeful. Akhmed is experiencing a profound realization, a dawning of hope and purpose.
Vocabulary	Glimmer	A faint or wavering light; a faint sign of something. Stress: Represents a small but significant presence of hope or positivity in an otherwise dark situation.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Epiphany	Akhmed has a moment of sudden and profound understanding about the value of life.
	Contrast/Paradox	Beauty amidst chaos, hope amidst despair – these paradoxes are what he begins to perceive and find meaning in.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Factual, Cautious, Formal	The language used is official and descriptive of the WHO’s position, with a note of caution regarding ongoing management.
Vocabulary	Constitute	To be or be equivalent to (something); to form or make up. Stress: Indicates that COVID-19 currently is this level of emergency.
Vocabulary	Transition point	A phase or stage where a significant change or development occurs. Stress: Suggests the pandemic is evolving, not over, requiring ongoing adaptation.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	Public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC)	A formal declaration by the WHO of an extraordinary event which is determined to constitute a public health risk to other States through the international spread of disease and to potentially require a coordinated international response. Stress: This is the highest alert level from WHO, signifying severe global impact.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Somber, Factual, Grave	The chunk recounts the significant death toll and widespread destruction, evoking a serious and reflective mood.
Vocabulary	Ravaging	Causing severe and extensive damage to. Stress: Emphasizes the destructive impact of the pandemic on communities and economies worldwide.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Hopeful, Optimistic (cautiously)	The mention of changed situations and the Director-General’s quote convey a positive outlook, though still grounded in ongoing efforts.
Vocabulary	Considerably	By a notably large amount or to a notably large extent; significantly. Stress: Highlights the significant impact of vaccines and treatments.
Vocabulary	Transition	The process or a period of changing from one state or condition to another. Stress: Refers to moving towards a less critical phase of the pandemic.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Factual, Reassuring (regarding China)	The chunk reports official statements from China that suggest a controlled and improving situation.
Vocabulary	Epidemic situation	The state or condition concerning the spread of a disease within a particular population or region. Stress: Specific terminology used to describe disease prevalence.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	(Implicit) National Health Commission	The national-level government agency responsible for health policy and oversight in China. (While not a “legal word,” it’s a key policy-making body).

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Critical, Concerned, Urgent	The language used (“dangerously unprepared”) conveys a strong sense of alarm and criticism about the lack of preparedness.
Vocabulary	Dangerously unprepared	Not ready or able to deal with something, to an extent that poses a significant risk or threat. Stress: Emphasizes the severe lack of readiness.
Vocabulary	Outbreaks	A sudden occurrence of something unwelcome, such as war or disease. Stress: Refers to the start of new epidemics/pandemics.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Prescriptive, Advisory, Formal	The chunk outlines specific recommendations and directives for action by countries.
Vocabulary	Readiness	The state of being fully prepared for something. Stress: Focuses on the goal of IFRC’s recommendations – ensuring communities are prepared.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	Legislation	Laws, considered collectively, enacted by a legislative body. Stress: Refers to national laws that need to align with preparedness goals.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	Pandemic preparedness plans	Strategies and arrangements put in place at national and international levels to prevent, respond to, and mitigate the impact of pandemics. Stress: These are the existing frameworks that legislation should support.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	Treaty	A formally concluded and ratified agreement between states. Stress: Suggests the need for a new binding international agreement on pandemic preparedness.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	International Health Regulations (IHR)	An international legal instrument that is binding on 196 countries across the globe, including all WHO Member States. Their aim is to help the international community prevent and respond to acute public health risks that have the potential to cross borders and threaten people worldwide. Stress: Refers to existing global health rules that need revision.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Urgent, Admonishing, Persuasive	The quote uses strong language and a rhetorical question to convey urgency and to criticize potential inaction.
Vocabulary	Quicken	Make or become faster or quicker. Stress: Implies the need to accelerate efforts towards preparedness.
Vocabulary	Preparedness	The state of being ready for something, especially for a sudden or unexpected event. Stress: The central theme of the IFRC’s message.
Stress Words	What will?	A rhetorical question used to emphasize that if a major event like COVID-19 doesn’t spur action, it’s hard to imagine what would. Stress: Highlights the gravity of inaction.
Stress Words	There will be no excuse	A strong statement indicating that any future lack of preparedness would be unjustifiable. Stress: Emphasizes accountability and the lessons that should have been learned.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone	Prescriptive, Persuasive, Conditional	It recommends financial actions, tries to persuade that it’s a good investment, and makes success conditional on political will.
Vocabulary	Gross domestic product (GDP)	The total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific time period. Stress: A standard measure for economic output, used here as a basis for recommended health spending.
Vocabulary	Political will	The commitment of political actors (governments, politicians) to take actions to achieve specific goals. Stress: Presented as the most critical factor for implementing the recommendations.
Stress Words	The important thing is	A phrase used to emphasize the most crucial point that follows. Stress: Signals that political will is the paramount requirement.
Stress Words	If it is there, it’s possible.	A conditional statement emphasizing that the feasibility of the recommendations hinges on the presence of political commitment. Stress: Reinforces the necessity of political will.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	Domestic health finance	Funding allocated by a country from its own resources towards its healthcare system and public health initiatives. Stress: A key area for increased investment.
Legal/Policy Words/Concepts	Global health finance	Funding directed towards health initiatives on an international scale, often involving contributions from multiple countries or international organizations. Stress: Another area needing increased investment according to IFRC.

Highlighted Phrase	Meaning
stirred up the papers	Mixed the slips in the box, symbolic of fate being shuffled
air was thick with tension	Strong, noticeable silence filled with anxiety
pleasantries	Casual, polite conversation
collective intake of breath	A shared, sharp breath taken by many in suspense
murmur went through the crowd	Quiet reaction of surprise or concern
it isn’t fair	Protest against injustice
pelt her with stones	Throw stones repeatedly at someone, here symbolizing mob violence
cruel tradition	A practice passed down that is morally wrong but socially accepted
Phrase	Meaning
“air was thick with tension”	A metaphor suggesting extreme unease or anxiety in the atmosphere.
“collective intake of breath”	A moment of shared shock or anticipation.
“drawing a slip of paper”	Refers to the process of selection in the lottery.
“It isn’t fair”	A cry of protest against injustice or lack of genuine choice.
“closed in around”	Physically surrounding someone, here with violent intent.
“mob mentality”	When individuals in a group lose personal responsibility and follow the crowd blindly.
“necessary tradition”	An idea used to justify actions simply because they’ve always been done.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Transformed, Purposeful, Resolute. He is no longer the uncertain man from the beginning; he is now driven by a clear purpose.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Irreversible Change	The repetition of “never” (“never be the same,” “never be content”) highlights the definitive nature of his transformation.
	Impact of Experience	“He had seen too much, felt too much” emphasizes how profound experiences can alter one’s perspective and life trajectory.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Active, Compassionate, Practical. The focus is on his actions and the direct, hands-on support he offers.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Action-Oriented	Demonstrates how purpose translates into action.
	Grassroots Effort	He begins his work at the local, community level.
	Importance of Listening	“listened to their stories” highlights the value of acknowledging individual experiences and providing emotional support alongside physical aid.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Bold, Proactive, Advocative. Akhmed takes on a more public and challenging role.
Stress Words/Phrases	But he didn’t stop there.	Signals an escalation and expansion of his activities.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Activism	Depicts Akhmed’s transition into a social activist working for systemic change.
	Growth of Character	Shows his development from a man “content to live in the background” to an organizer and public speaker.

Category	Word/Phrase from Chunk	Explanation
Tone		Realistic, Resolute, Confident (in purpose). Acknowledges difficulties but emphasizes his inner strength and determination stemming from his sense of purpose.
Stress Words/Phrases	But he also knew	Contrasts the acknowledgment of challenges with his overriding sense of purpose and capability.
Literary/Thematic Elements	Enduring Purpose	The sense of purpose is presented as a sustainable source of strength.
	Realistic Optimism	Balances awareness of future difficulties with a strong belief in his ability to face them due to his purpose.
	Character Resolution	Akhmed’s internal journey reaches a stable point of clarity and strength, even as his external work continues.

Consumer Law for CLAT: A Comprehensive Study Module

Works cited

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